Managing change in an organization isn't an easy task, but with the right tools, it can be managed effectively. Here are 8 essential change management tools you can use in the different stages of the change management cycle. Learn about flowcharts, culture mapping, Lewin's change model and many more. Every business or company aims to provide the same level of quality plan regarding the products and services it produces or makes. Making the quality consistent all throughout the business process is a challenge in itself which is the same as event management targeting the. 8.3.3.4 Background to incorporating bioaccumulation into guidelines 8.3–17 8.3.4 The approach used to derive guideline trigger values 8.3–22 8.3.4.1 An overview of the approach 8.3–22 8.3.4.2 Requirements for quality of data 8.3–24 8.3.4.3 Degree of protection to be provided 8.3–26 8.3.4.4 Deriving the guideline trigger values 8.3–27. GUI: File permissions. I’m going to demonstrate changing file permissions using the Nautilus file manager on an Ubuntu 13.10 system. Let’s say you need to allow everyone to gain read/write permissions to the folder TEST. To do this, within the Nautilus file manager, follow these steps: Open Nautilus; Navigate to the target file or folder. 1.1 Case‐based research on talent management approaches 1 1.2 Key decisions and choices in developing talent management: the Four‐Step Approach 2 2 Step One: Definition 4 2.1 Definition: What is talent management? 4 2.2 Defining talent management within wider people management 7.
Managing records on a project is an essential activity that makes it possible to handle and use project documentation in the way that ensure smooth capturing of documents and papers by seniors, team members, and other stakeholders. Being a part of overall document management, records management allows a project manager to direct and control document flows throughout the project lifecycle, while ensuring that every single document or record serves the operational needs and helps teams capture and retrieve necessary information. It creates a framework for running project activities and procedures and paves the way for analysis, lessons learned, historical reviews, etc.
Personally, I can’t image a project having no means of managing records and documentation. I regard project records management as a consistent and continuous process that includes a range of steps and procedures to create, use and store various types and kinds of project records, files, documents, papers, sheets etc. Let’s learn more about it. In this article I talk about the definition, importance and key steps of the process for managing project records.
Definition
Managing project records is an important responsibility of a project manager who must ensure that every document or file is properly designed, formatted, communicated, secured, stored, and archived. The manager should also keep the records up-to-date and relevant. If to look at records management at the highest level, you may see that it is similar to a process rather than a responsibility. So I regard it as a process which has certain inputs, consumes some resources, and generate definite outcomes. Here’s the definition of project records management:
Project Records Management is a process of creating, directing and controlling document flows within a project, through using an administrative system, to provide effective development, versioning, filing, storing and retrieving of records, while ensuring that every record designed is utilized administratively and legally. The process creates a framework for managing the project activities and delivering necessary information to teams.
As a process, project records management is characterized by the following items:
- Inputs: any essential information to be recorded and saved for the project
- Resources: equipment, systems, software, communication tools, HR etc.
- Guidelines: document management policies, document standards, filing procedures, etc.
- Outputs: document flows, files, catalogues, record sheets, etc.
When you start managing your project, first you must be sure that there’s a framework for documenting and filing events occurring within the project (the inputs). By using systems and software (the resource), your teams can record activities and events and create documents. They follow prescribed procedures for event recording and documenting (the guidelines). Finally running the process allows you to develop necessary documentation, files and records (the outputs). In this regard, project records management seems to be cyclical – when records are created, treated, filed and documented.
The process of managing project files and records is important because of the following aspects:
- Supporting ease and efficiency of the project activities
- Allowing teams can find required information you when they need
- Protecting the project data from unauthorized access and use
- Saving time and effort
- Reducing costs, including space costs
- Keeping files up-to-date and versioned
Three Steps
Below I describe the process as a three step sequence. I personally use these steps to manage records and files within my projects. Hope the information will be helpful for you as well.
Step #1. Create Project Files
When you create a project file, you must be sure you do it in accordance with the standards and requirements of file management within your organization. For example, in my organization we have a file management policy stating how to create a project file, what system and tools to use, what file formats and extensions are preferable, who has authorizes for file creation, how to update filed records, and so on.
There’re five common requirements to project file creation:
- Prompt. A file is to be created as early and quickly as possible.
- Simple. File content should have a structure that is as simple as possible.
- Separate. Every file is a single and separate record; two or more files can’t be combined; if there’s a need to combine the content of several files, a new file should be created.
- Up-to-date. When a project file is updated, a versioning number as well as the date revised should be added to the file header.
- Confidential. A file should be maintained with complete confidentiality; only authorized personnel can access the file and its content.
In any project and programme these 5 requirements should be treated with great care because otherwise the project/programme is likely to fail with creating reliable, comprehensive, complete and relevant project files.
Step #2. File Project Documents
Once you have created a file according to your file management policy and requirements, now you can proceed with filing project documents. It means you must put all your documents and white-papers into respective files. Below I list the key documents and data you should add to your project files:
- Official mail and email correspondence, including letters, attachments, pictures
- Papers if project meetings
- Project request, proposal, brief.
- Stakeholder contact details
- Change and variance requests
- Project diary
- Issue logs/risk logs/decisions made
- Status reports and summaries
- Procurement papers
- Team guidelines, instructions, notes, etc.
- Handover/closure documents
You should be sure that every piece of this data is put into a file. There should be version control to ensure that the project files are updated and changed properly. The following details are required: revision number, revision date, author, editor, link to an electronic copy (if any).
Step #3. Archive and Destroy Project Records
Once all of your project documents and relevant data have been filed, your next step is to manage the records and move them to archive . Archiving project records means making documents no more available within the given environment while ensuring that the records are retrievable for further projects and lessons learned.
Fresh 2 8 4 – File Managing Approaches Pdf
When you project is over, you may need to destruct the records, instead of archiving them. Anyway, you must refer to the archiving and destructing procedures of your organization when treating your project records.
In my organization we prefer archiving documentation rather than destroying. We try not to practice record destroying because we believe that any piece of documented and filed information may be required in the future. Your company may have another opinion regarding this.
Fresh 2 8 4 – File Managing Approaches Effectively
However, we can’t keep all of our files forever because this seems to be highly expensive. We try to give a file the longest life possible and wait until the life is over; then we just destruct the file. Below I give you our record retention requirements which, I hope, will be useful for you:
- Contract documents and advice records: we store this type of project records for at least 5 years after the contracts are fulfilled.
- General project records: these are kept in accordance with the function that they support.
- Research data records: from 5 to 7 years, depending upon the nature of the research.
- Legal issues and case records: a minimum of 7 years.
- Finance records are kept 5 years long.
- Other types of project records are archived for the period of 5-7 years.
Best practice of document archiving says that an organization should try to retain a project file for the longest possible period of time. We follow this standard. And you?
Information on the different approaches to decision-making are given below:
There are several approaches to decision-making which offer insight into the process by which managers arrive at their decisions. Rational approach is appealing as it is logical and economical.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The other approach is the behavioural approach which attempts to account for the limits on rationality in decision-making.
The third approach, namely, the practical approach combines features of the rational and behavioural approaches.
Image Source: decision-making-solutions.comFinally, the personal approach focuses on decision-making processes individuals use in difficult situations.
A. The Rational Approach:
Rational decision-making approach is a systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions. It assumes that the organization is economically based and managed by decision-makers who are absolutely objective and have complete information.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The steps of rational decision-making approach are as follows:
(1)State the Situational Goal:
At the outset, a goal for a particular situation is stated. Some decision-models do not begin with a goal. However, it is advisable because it can be used as a standard in determining whether there is a decision to be made later on.
(2)Identify the Problem:
In this phase, the problem requiring decision is recognized and diagnosed. It involves understanding the nature, magnitude and causes of the problem. The purpose of problem identification is to collect information that has a bearing on the goal.
If there is a .discrepancy between the actual situation and the goal, action may be required. Reliable information is an absolute necessity here. Inaccurate information can lead to wrong decisions. At this stage, the constraints within which the problem must be solved are also defined.
(3)Determining Decision Type:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Now decision- makers must determine if the problem requires a programmed or a non-programmed decision. If a programmed decision is required, an appropriate decision rule 0s invoked and a choice is made from the available alternatives.
(4)Generate Alternatives:
The next step in making a non-programmed decision is to generate alternatives. Here, decision-makers generate alternatives on the basis of their education-academic as well as professional, experience and knowledge about the situation.
In addition, information may be sought from colleagues, subordinates, experts and superiors. Decision-makers may analyze the symptoms of the problems for clues or rely on their own intuition or judgement to generate alternative solutions.
(5)Evaluate Alternatives:
Each alternative is assessed in terms of its Strengths and weaknesses, costs and benefits as well as possible negative consequences keeping in mind predetermined decision criteria. The positive consequences must be weighed against negative consequences.
The ultimate decision criterion here is whether a particular decision will bring us nearer the goal. According to Zeleny (1976), the evaluation process usually includes: (a) describing the anticipated outcomes of each alternative, (b) evaluating the anticipated costs of each alternative, and (c) estimating the uncertainties and risks associated with each alternative.
In most situations, the decision-makers do not have perfect information regarding the outcomes of all alternatives at their disposal.
(6)Choose an Alternative:
This is the most crucial step in the decision-making process. It involves selecting the best alternative with maximum positive consequences, least or no negative outcomes, less risks and minimum costs.
In other words, the expected value of each alternative is determined and the alternative with the largest expected values is selected. Again, the choice of alternative depends on decision-makers’ education, judgement, experiences, logical analysis etc.
At this stage, it is important to consider contingency plans. Contingency plans are alternative actions to take if the primary course of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate. Planning for contingencies is part of the transition between choosing the preferred alternative and implementing it.
(7)Implementing the Plan:
Once a decision is formally accepted, an authorisation is made for its implementation. Implementation puts the decision into action and involves communicating the decision, gathering support for and acquiring and assigning resources to ensure that it is carried out.
It builds on the commitment and motivation of those involved in the decision-making process. Successful implementation requires appropriate use of resources and good management skills, leadership character sties, reward structure and knowledge and application of group dynamics. Sometimes the decision-maker begins to doubt a choice already made. This is known as cognitive dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance is the anxiety a person experiences when two sets of knowledge or perceptions are incongruent or contradictory. In order to reduce cognitive dissonance, the decision maker may seek o rationalize the decision further with new information.
(8)Control:
This is the final stage of rational decision-making process, wherein, the outcomes of the decision are measured a id compared with the predetermined, desired goals. If there is a discrepancy between the two, the decision-maker may restart the process of decision-making by revising/modifying/setting new goals.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Rational Approach
This approach has several strengths. It forces the decision-maker to consider a decision in a logical, sequential manner and an in-depth analysis of alternatives helps him to choose on the basis of information rather than personal prejudices, emotions or social pressure.
However, its weaknesses are that the manager does not always have perfect information faces time and financial constraints, may have limited ability to process information and may not be able to predict future accurately. Also, all the alternatives cannot be quantified making comparisons difficult.
The following figure shows the rational decision-making process diagrammatically (Moorhead and Griffin, 1999).
B. The Behavioural Approach:
This approach assumes that decision-makers operate with bounded rationality rather than with the perfect rationality assumed by the rational approach. Bounded rationality is the idea that decision makers cannot deal with information about all the aspects and alternatives pertaining to a problem and therefore choose to tackle some meaningful subset of it.
Thus, this process is neither exhaustive nor completely rational and therefore, solutions arrived at are not entirely ideal. Decision-makers operating with bounded rationality limit the inputs to the decision-making process, focus their attention on two or three most favourable alternatives (especially if there is a time constraint), process these in great detail and base their decisions on judgement and personal biases as well as logic.
This approach possesses the following features:
(i) Use of procedures and rules of thumb which reduce uncertainty in decision-making initially. For example, uses of models of teaching have been found to enhance student performance in the past. Hence teachers, knowing the linkages between the two decide to use models of teaching in classrooms.
(ii) Sub optimizing which refers to knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization.
(iii) “Satisfying refers to examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found and then making no further efforts to look for a better one. The search for alternatives is generally a sequential process based on procedures and rules of thumb guided by previous experiences with similar problems.
Such a solution may not always be the optimal solution since the search often ends when the first minimally acceptable alternative is identified.
This model by Herbert Simon is also known as Administrative Man Model.’
C. The Practical Approach:
This approach combines the steps of the rational approach with the worthwhile features and conditions in the behavioural approach to create a more realistic process for making decisions in institutions.
According to this approach, rather than generating all alternatives, the decision-maker should try to go beyond rules of thumb and satisfying limitations and generate as many alternatives as possible within the given time, money and other Practicalities of the situation.
Here, the rational approach provides an analytical framework for making decisions while the behavioural approach provides a moderating influence.
Those managers who have a tendency of jumping from one decision to another, making decisions hastily and impulsively and barking out orders to subordinates usually do not use much information or a rational approach to decision-making.
D. The Personal Approach:
The preceding three approaches explicitly explain the processes involved into decision-making. However, they do not throw light on how people take decisions when they are nervous, anxious, worried or agitated-whether in organizations or in personal matters.
Janis and Mann (1977) have provided a more realistic view of individual decision-making in their ‘Conflict Model’. This model is based on research in social psychology and individual decision processes. It is a personal approach to decision-making because it deals with the personal conflicts that people experience in particularly difficult decision situations.
The model has five basic characteristics:
(a) It deals only with important life decisions such as choosing the nature and type of education and institution, career, marriage, major organizational decisions etc. that commit an individual or institution to a certain course of action.
(b) It recognizes that procrastination and rationalization are mechanisms by which people avoid taking difficult decisions and coping with the accompanying stress.
(c) It explicitly acknowledges that some decisions could possibly go wrong.
(d) It provides for self-reactions in terms of comparisons of alternatives with internalized moral standards. If a particular course of action violates the decision-makers moral convictions, it is unlikely to be selected even if it is economically and socially beneficial.
(e) It recognizes that at times the decision-maker is ambivalent about alternative courses of action. This kind of situation makes it difficult for him to give a whole-hearted commitment to one single decision. However, major decisions concerning one’s life are either-or decisions that require commitment to one specific alternative without allowing much compromise.
According to Janis-Mann conflict model of decision-making, a person, when faced with a problem, analyzes the situation by seeking feedback (often negative) and asks himself/herself whether the risks involved are serious if he or she does not make a change.
If the answer is no, the person will continue his/her present activities. This situation as known as uncomplicated adherence which entails continuing with current activities if doing so does not entail serious risks.
On the other hand, if the risks involved are serious, if the person does not make a change, the person will take necessary action to bring about a desirable change. This situation is known as uncomplicated change which involves making changes in present activities if doing so presents no serious risks.
Besides, the model also explains the concept of defensive avoidance which entails making no changes in present activities and avoiding any further contact with associated issues because there appears to be no hope of finding a better solution.
If a person has little time to deliberate on whether he needs to make a change perhaps due to his advancing age he will experience hyper vigilance wherein he may suffer severe psychological stress and engage in frantic, superficial pursuit of some satisfying strategy.
On the other hand, if a person has two or three yea s to consider different alternatives, he will undertake vigilant information processing which implies that he will thoroughly investigate all possible alternatives, weigh their costs and benefits before making a decision and develop contingency plans.